LFP, NMC and Solid-State Batteries Explained

Lithium-ion batteries power almost everything rechargeable, from earbuds to electric cars. Sony sold the first commercial lithium-ion battery in 1991, and the three scientists who developed the technology, John Goodenough, Stanley Whittingham and Akira Yoshino, shared the 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Since then, batteries have become far cheaper and more capable, and the chemistry inside them is now changing in ways that matter to anyone buying a phone, laptop or car.

How much cheaper batteries have become

According to the research firm BloombergNEF, the average price of lithium-ion battery packs fell from well over $1,000 per kilowatt-hour in 2010 to about $115 per kilowatt-hour in 2024, a drop of roughly 90 percent. That fall is the main reason electric cars have moved closer to price parity with petrol cars and why home and grid batteries have become practical.

The main chemistries, compared

All lithium-ion batteries move lithium ions between two electrodes, but the materials used, especially in the positive electrode (cathode), make a big difference.

• NMC (nickel manganese cobalt): high energy density, meaning more range or runtime for the weight. Common in long-range electric cars and many electronics. Uses cobalt and nickel, which are expensive and raise mining and supply concerns.
• LFP (lithium iron phosphate): lower energy density but cheaper, longer-lasting and more resistant to overheating. It uses no cobalt or nickel. LFP has become common in standard-range electric cars, including some Tesla models, and dominates home and grid storage. Manufacturers often recommend charging LFP cars to 100 percent regularly, unlike NMC.
• LCO (lithium cobalt oxide): used in many phones and laptops because it packs a lot of energy into a small space, though it's less durable and more expensive.

What's coming next

Solid-state batteries replace the liquid electrolyte with a solid material. In principle this allows more energy in the same space, faster charging and lower fire risk. Toyota, Samsung SDI, QuantumScape and others are developing them, with carmakers targeting limited production in the late 2020s. Making them cheaply and durably at scale remains the challenge.

Sodium-ion batteries use sodium, which is abundant and cheap, instead of lithium. They hold less energy but perform better in the cold and avoid lithium supply constraints. China's CATL and BYD have started producing them for small cars and energy storage.

Silicon anodes add silicon to the negative electrode to store more lithium. Some phones and premium electronics already use them to fit larger batteries into thin designs.

Why phone batteries wear out

Every charge cycle causes small, irreversible changes inside the battery, so capacity drops over time. Apple, for example, says iPhone batteries are designed to retain about 80 percent of their original capacity after a set number of complete charge cycles, which has risen from 500 cycles on older models to 1,000 on recent ones. Heat speeds up wear more than anything else, so leaving a phone in a hot car or charging it under a pillow shortens its life.

Making batteries last longer

• Avoid heat. Don't leave devices in direct sun or hot cars, and remove thick cases if a phone gets warm while charging.
• Use built-in protection features. Most phones and laptops offer optimized or limited charging that holds the battery at about 80 percent until you need it.
• Don't worry about small top-ups. Modern lithium-ion batteries don't need to be fully drained; partial charges are fine.
• Store devices half charged if you won't use them for months.
• For electric cars, follow the manufacturer's guidance on daily charge limits, and use fast chargers when you need them rather than for every charge.

Electric car battery life

Early concerns that EV batteries would need replacing after a few years have largely not come true. Studies of large fleets, including analysis by the telematics company Geotab, have found that average battery capacity loss is gradual, often around 2 percent a year, and many cars will outlast their batteries' warranty without major degradation. In the US, federal rules require EV makers to warranty batteries for at least 8 years or 100,000 miles.

Fast charging explained

Charging speed is measured in watts for phones and kilowatts for cars. Phones that once charged at 5 watts now commonly accept 25 to 45 watts or more, and electric cars on the fastest public chargers can take 150 to 350 kilowatts. Speed is highest when the battery is fairly empty and slows sharply above about 80 percent to protect the cells, which is why EV makers quote charging times from 10 to 80 percent. Frequent fast charging generates more heat and can add slightly to wear, but battery management systems limit the effect, and studies of real-world EV fleets have found only a modest difference between heavy and light fast-charger users.

Why batteries struggle in the cold

Chemical reactions slow down in cold weather, so batteries deliver less power and charge more slowly. Phones may shut down unexpectedly in freezing temperatures even with charge left, and electric cars lose range in winter, partly because the battery is less efficient and partly because heating the cabin uses energy. Cars with heat pumps and the ability to precondition the battery while plugged in lose noticeably less range. The effect is temporary; capacity returns when the battery warms up.

Home batteries

Home battery systems, usually using LFP cells, store solar power for the evening or provide backup during outages. A typical system stores roughly 10 to 15 kilowatt-hours, enough to run essential circuits such as the fridge, lights and internet for many hours. Whether one pays for itself depends on local electricity prices, how much solar you generate and whether your utility pays you for exported power.

Safety

Lithium-ion fires are rare but serious, because damaged batteries can enter "thermal runaway," where heat triggers further heating. Most incidents involve damaged, poorly made or incorrectly charged batteries, especially in cheap e-bikes and e-scooters. New York City has passed rules requiring e-bikes and their batteries sold in the city to meet a recognized safety standard, UL 2849, after a series of deadly fires. Using the charger supplied with a device and buying certified products reduces risk.

Recycling

Used batteries contain valuable lithium, cobalt, nickel and copper. Recycling companies recover a high share of these metals, and the European Union now sets recycling targets and requirements for recycled content in new batteries. Never throw lithium-ion batteries in household trash or curbside recycling, where they can be crushed and start fires. Use designated drop-off points instead.